Policing in Cryptoracial Societies: The Case of Mexico

In 2013, the Official Journal of Federation Mexico listed key challenges facing Mexico's judicial institutions: a lack public trust due to widespread corruption and systematic failure prosecute convict criminals (DOF, 2014). A plan address these issues ensued. Written by National Conference on Administration Enforcement Justice, this consisted institutional reforms be carried out Mexican judiciary as well adoption new technologies standardize forensic practices police department. Central measures was proposed consolidation national biometric databases; chiefly, automated identification system (ABIS, for fingerprints), Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), Caramex, otherwise known La Cara del Mexicano (the Face Mexican), photographic database faces (see Gobierno de la República, 2015: Serrano et al. 1999). The general objective build security strengthened technology with hope that databases would help inability catch at both local federal levels. However, despite efforts, international reports such Global Impunity 2020 suggest strategies, implemented improve system, had little effect (LeCleroq Ortega Rodríguez Sánchez Lara, 2020, 9–10). article, I argue through use should come no surprise; is, technological developments, realization justice in will only achieved when attention is paid everyday discriminatory police—and society general—and particular role “race” within those practices. Furthermore, it remains unclear how might themselves contribute creating or reshaping race operates what call cryptoracial society—a where absent from official demographic information, resulting racial ideas being hidden behind other explanations discrimination, class.1 societies, which include Latin American, European, some Middle Eastern Asian relevance racism talking about understanding difference hidden, race's centrality. contexts, (for example, CODIS, ABIS, Caramex) can then further obscure race, particularly policing practices, introducing false sense objectivity. Ultimately, differences created myriad ways scientific anthropological theories, measurements, categories, ideologies, political projects (Loveman, 2014; Teslow, What show here produced even contexts category surveys discourse thus essential reckon if across Mexico, racism, brutality, disproportionate preventive incarceration, limited access fair trials, are adequately addressed. Therefore, examine two currently creation ethnic identities explore why overlap subjected biased Mexico. To do so, first outline contours unequal before laying myth mestizaje shapes cryptoracism. literature identifies wide variety biases responsible treatment criminalization specific groups. Here, focus three factors, interlinked: current rule law differential persecution petty crime, racism. As result various academics identify least five populations who subject criminalization. On one hand, there poor, young, Brown men majority imprisoned population, suggests process (Gutiérrez Vargas, 2021; Pérez Correa, women, Indigenous people, Afrodescendants, LGBTTTI individuals, face significant disadvantages accessing historic processes structural discrimination.2 factor, law, shaped largely war drugs. Made government December 2006 Herrera Beltrán, 2006), drugs began continuous has increased intervening years 2021). According José Gutiérrez Vargas (2021, 202), consequence based policy made agreement United States. subsequent against terrorism narcotraffic also disproportionately affected population because opportunities makes organized crime their best, only, option. Consequently, group become main target violence army, police, penitentiary system. not marked poverty but profiling. second crimes, refers relation kind crimes persecuted (Pérez Studies conducted 2013 2021 half investigated sentenced relate mostly robberies (México Evalúa, decision always but, rather, ease solving case, quality investigation, materials knowledge available investigators. consequence, criminal ends up targeting usually commit leaving prevalent high-profile instance, corruption) unsolved. poor deep historical roots. Pablo Piccato (1997) shows, beginning twentieth century, president Porfirio Díaz his modernizing project, civilization progress were contrasted less “civilized” populations: “the Mexicans … wearing traditional clothes, groomed, unavoidable servants, beggars, drunks offenders” (141–42). This contrast between elite civilized uncivilized, instantiated populations, turn given shape enduring stereotypes emphasizing relationship criminality, class, (136). Thus, though class an important factor inequality ethnoracial element discrimination been studied until recently (Gall, Telles, Telles Paschel, neither nor ethnicity have openly used labels, alone often served explanation past present discrimination. result, topic still tends subsumed under narrative true evidence suffered racialized groups, case people Afrodescendants Afro-Mexicans (Pichardo Ramírez, 2020). Today, several studies skin suffer every aspect life (Color piel, n.d.; CONAPRED, 2012; INEGI, 2017; Moreno Figueroa, see https://racismo.mx). much cryptoracism results (mixture hybridity), idea more “pure types,” “populations,” mixing form one. imagined subsequently influenced theories technologies. purity favored Europe (see, Gobineau, 1915), understandings many countries America, including stem mixture (Hartigan, 2013; Wade al., anchored earlier colonial times arrival “New World” European conquistadores, mainly men, intimate relations women Chong, 2019; Navarrete Jones, sexual encounter different “types” humans Figure 1) led complex set “human types” categorized according mixes they represented. casta mestizo core (Carrera, 2002). became central ideology Olarte Sierra Castillo, Wade, Various intellectuals recovered during century population. reproduced anthropological, sociological, and, recently, genetic work scientists, (Lomnitz, 2001, Loveman, García Deister López 2013). next section explores all factors together technologies3 policing. discuss criteria self-identification offered part Survey Imprisoned Population (Encuesta Nacional Población Privada Libertad, ENPOL). survey designed generate statistical information socioeconomic profile prosecution detention (INEGI, Using categories like language, identity, physical characteristics, color define Indigeneity, data determine instances survey, Indigeneity defined linguistic criteria, speaking language proof having self-ascription, innovation positive consequences allows, theory, provision culturally adequate defense Allowing self-identify count usual reproduction cultural traditions, possession language) foster essentialized identity challenge stereotypical views loss customs Indigeneity. produce “more realistic” composite sketches experts (peritos) involved identifying criminals. Created renowned anthropologists working Autonomous University later City Attorney General's Office (then, Procuraduría General Justicia Distrito Federal, today, Fiscalia Ciudad México). images restricted investigators intended support localization final apprehension suspects. sometimes appear spaces (Figure 2). There motivations database. plan, initiated 1990s, such, generating photolike composites instead drawings. way portraits “Mexican faces”—a task systems, Identi-Kit Photo-Fit, able perform (Nieves Delgado, 2020)—an improvement studying facial diversity constructing populating represent informed mestizaje. collect photographs database, researchers went places allegedly took place characteristics each original (European, Indigenous, Afro) found. For assumed communities located coastlines Pacific Ocean Gulf African features (Serrano 1998, 62), whereas northern states, whose higher status, retain Martínez Casas commonly held belief certain areas Jaliscan Highlands, percentage blond people. These with, “very typical Mayan population” Yucatán sampling create follows assumptions. design relies implicitly story portrays racially admixed country met 400 ago anyone else. face” understood something process. its success taken testify difference. Interestingly, Caramex requires lot tinkering expert. Experts constantly uploading pictures Internet finish sketches. incorporation random throws into question stability face. sense, shows reproduce contest stereotypes. insight open interrogate effects Moreover, invites us reconsider myths underlying construction old found territory. illustrate justified Broader building nonessentialist processes. homogeneity make explicit play our seeing, especially (i.e., Brown/Indigenous criminal). At same time, corroborate expectations. By helping realistic portraits, instantiation criminality Brown/Indigenous-looking Similar analyses done CODIS ABIS. Does produced? States, disparity number profiles Black compared White (Murphy Tong, If suffers similar Brown, Afrodescendant could another source bias tool vulnerable populations. Several enacted Color Piel, INEGI 2017). It surprise pervasive structurally disadvantaged positions lead them crimes. And, feedback loop, towards poorest, darkest side spectrum criminalized (including stop searches, good legal aid trials). words, leads reason, most dangerous, individuals populate prisons (Azaola Bergman, 2007, 112). While may proclaim, “We mestizos,” clear we same. Peter argued, “The common nation creates ground democracy, simultaneously provides space blackness, indigeneity whiteness hierarchically valued” (2017, 17). top hierarchy general, whiter considered desirable (Arceo-Gomez Campos-Vazquez, Villareal, 2010). comes seeing systematically favors whiteness. origins pervades society. pressing need debunk inform ourselves others, serious consideration stages inequalities. ENPOL flow change over time. Similarly, looking closely destabilize homogeneity. reflecting assumptions human profiling research shown implementation ability significantly influence groups’ lives. Ensuring reinforce inequities efforts realize thank shared insights work. possible publication Nieves Delgado (2020), contains extended version discussion Caramex. want Mark Whittle editors comments previous versions article.